Introduction to the Scientific Method:
The
purpose of the Science Club is, understandably, to learn about all
manner of Scientific “stuff.” What, exactly, do we mean by “Science?”
Please, tell me what you think before we continue.
What is Science?
I
HAVE promised to introduce you today to the fairy-land of science - a
somewhat bold promise, seeing that most of you probably look upon
science as a bundle of dry facts, while fairy- land is all that is
beautiful, and full of poetry and imagination. But I thoroughly believe
myself, and hope to prove to you, that science is full of beautiful
pictures, of real poetry, and of wonder-working fairies; and what is
more, I promise you they shall be true fairies, whom you will love just
as much when you are old and greyheaded as when you are young; for you
will be able to call them up wherever you wander by land or by sea,
through meadow or through wood, through water or through air; and though
they themselves will always remain invisible, yet you will see their
wonderful poet at work everywhere around you.
~~ Buckley, Arabella B. (2004-05-01). The Fairy-Land of Science (Kindle Locations 5-10). Public Domain Books. Kindle Edition.
As
it turns out the answer to this question can be rather complex even
though it seems as if we should be able put our finger on a nice clear
answer. For example, you might define science by what it is not. For example, you might say that science isn’t a matter of opinion.
Can you give me an example of an opinion?
As it turns, people can and do perform scientific studies of public opinion called “surveys” or “opinion polls.”
In the Food Industry, a company might conduct “taste tests” in the hope
of scientifically discovering which recipe would have the broadest
appeal. Politicians like to use polls to
help determine where the voters stand on controversial matters.
However, not all surveys or polls are performed correctly and are not,
in fact, scientific owing to these flaws.
Does anyone know why a survey might not be scientifically valid?
While
this lesson isn’t about surveys, two simple areas where a survey can
create unreliable results would be the application of leading questions or an inadequate sample surveyed.
For example, if I asked everyone in this room if they liked apples or
oranges better, I would not have a large enough survey in order to
generalize a conclusion that “such-and-such a percent of Americans prefer apples to oranges.” A leading question is one that biases responses towards one answer over another. For example, “Company
X has genetically engineered their cows; but the Scientific Community
urges caution in the name of public safety. Would you consider eating
Company X’s mysterious Frankenmeat or do you think the natural thing is
safer?”
As confusing as this might be, let us start with a working definition of science as the pursuit of knowledge which can be verified.
An important point regarding science is that the conclusions must be,
in some way, testable .. either verified or disproved. Science requires
discipline and rigor.
What is the Scientific Method?
Although
commonly presented as a sequence of steps, not all steps are performed
in every scientific inquiry and when they do occur, it is not always in
the same order. Our discussion, therefore, should be a general outline,
not a straight jacket. Basically, what we want is a method of
understanding and possibly predicting some aspect of our world. This
method must be based on evidence and observation and needs to be
reproducible.
Scientists
use a series of steps to determine if they can justify a belief in
something. The basic parts of the scientific method are: Problem,
Hypothesis, Materials, Procedure, Data, Results, Conclusion.
Problem
Our
problem begins as a curiosity regarding something or a need to explain
and hopefully predict a phenomenon under consideration. Let’s consider
as an example a caveman, Og, and his wife, Meg.
Og
goes out to hunt every day to feed his family. Meg busies herself
everyday in rummaging around the forest looking for roots, tubers,
berries, nuts, seeds, or leaves for her family to eat. Archeologists
would consider them a hunter-gather society. Their lifestyle involves a
lot of effort and quite a bit of wandering about.
Meg, being a fastidious housewife, noticed that if she just discards the leftovers from their meals about the cave that insects, rats, pests, and other animals tend to accumulate. She decides to pitch the leavings of their meals in one large pile a short distance from their home. Now, she discovers one day, some corn plants growing in the refuse pile.
Meg would like to know why the corn is growing there. She’s curious, because if she understands why corn is growing in the refuse pile, it seems as if she might be able to convince corn to grow somewhere convenient. If so, she might not have to go searching as far to gather corn for her family.
Meg, being a fastidious housewife, noticed that if she just discards the leftovers from their meals about the cave that insects, rats, pests, and other animals tend to accumulate. She decides to pitch the leavings of their meals in one large pile a short distance from their home. Now, she discovers one day, some corn plants growing in the refuse pile.
Meg would like to know why the corn is growing there. She’s curious, because if she understands why corn is growing in the refuse pile, it seems as if she might be able to convince corn to grow somewhere convenient. If so, she might not have to go searching as far to gather corn for her family.
“When
we want to find out anything that we do not know, there are two ways of
proceeding. We may either ask somebody else who does know, or read what
the most learned men have written about it, which is a very good plan
if anybody happens to be able to answer our question; or else we may
adopt the other plan, and by arranging an experiment, try for ourselves.
An experiment is a question which we ask of Nature, who is always ready
to give a correct answer, provided we ask properly, that is, provided
we arrange a proper experiment.”
~~ C. V. Boys. Soap-Bubbles / and the Forces Which Mould Them (Kindle Locations 54-58).
Hypothesis
"Why?”
“Why??” “WHY???” The countless “whyzz” of childhood have tried the
patience of adults throughout the ages. But asking “why” is one of the
most important strategies children have for connecting with their
caregivers and learning about the world around them.
Ever
get in trouble for asking too many “whys?” Well, science is all about
asking why and then figuring out the answer for yourself. Questions
reveal what you don’t know and what you might be willing to put in some
time and effort in order to learn. Here, questions are good.
A
Scientist would look at a problem and speculate or guess at a possible
explanation. Not all guesses are created equal. We could just make a
blind guess and start working on testing our theory, but we’d really
like to save time. We’d like to start with research and reading or
perhaps asking questions of people who might happen to know. However,
sometimes it is fun to figure things out for ourselves even if we could just look up the answer.
Mind,
I do not advise you to be constantly asking questions of other people;
for often a question quickly answered is quickly forgotten, but a
difficulty really hunted down is a triumph for ever.
For example, if you ask why the rain dries up from the ground, most likely you will be answered, "that the sun dries it," and you will rest satisfied with the sound of the words. But if you hold a wet handkerchief before the fire and see the damp rising out of it, then you have some real idea how moisture may be drawn up by heat from the earth.
For example, if you ask why the rain dries up from the ground, most likely you will be answered, "that the sun dries it," and you will rest satisfied with the sound of the words. But if you hold a wet handkerchief before the fire and see the damp rising out of it, then you have some real idea how moisture may be drawn up by heat from the earth.
~~ Buckley, Arabella B. (2004-05-01). The Fairy-Land of Science (Kindle Locations 128-136). Public Domain Books. Kindle Edition.
For
example, our cavewoman, Meg, might hear a robin singing in the tree
nearby and guess that the robin’s song magically draws the corn seed out
of the ground. Therefore, she could try to imitate the song of the
robin and by emulating this singing see if corn then grows. This would
take some time and effort and only serve to frustrate Meg in the long
run. She might become irritable and give up on trying to understand why
corn grows.
But with a little more thinking, Meg can make a well-educated guess. Well researched and well educated guesses make the process of experimentation, trial, and error proceed more quickly. Meg might realize that robins sing perched in branches everywhere, but corn does not grow everywhere.
What hypothesis do you think Meg should make? Why do you think that’s a good hypothesis to start with? What observations should Meg be making that might help her formulate a good hypothesis?
But with a little more thinking, Meg can make a well-educated guess. Well researched and well educated guesses make the process of experimentation, trial, and error proceed more quickly. Meg might realize that robins sing perched in branches everywhere, but corn does not grow everywhere.
What hypothesis do you think Meg should make? Why do you think that’s a good hypothesis to start with? What observations should Meg be making that might help her formulate a good hypothesis?
At this point, we don’t know if the hypothesis is correct or not because we haven’t done any testing.
Procedure
The
Scientific method stresses the importance of reproducibility and record
keeping. You need to specify what you did with enough detail for others
to repeat your experiment for themselves and see if they get the same
results. This is, to a large extent, one of the greatest parts about the
acquisition of knowledge through Science.
For example, an astronomer called Galileo Galilei got into an argument with the Church over his notion that the sun was the center of the solar system. Quoting some passages in the bible literally, the Church maintained that the earth was the center of the universe. For example, 1 Chronicles 16:30 says "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved" and Psalm 104:5 maintains "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." However, because Galileo employed the methodologies of science, his observations could be repeated by others. In time, while the Church could forcibly silence Galileo, they could not suppress his discoveries forever. Other scientists with other telescopes saw the evidence themselves.
A scientific procedure details a series of steps taken to test the hypothesis. Often, scientists must change the procedure several times to get it written down with enough detail. The procedure should probably lists materials used, process followed, and identify the variables present.
For example, an astronomer called Galileo Galilei got into an argument with the Church over his notion that the sun was the center of the solar system. Quoting some passages in the bible literally, the Church maintained that the earth was the center of the universe. For example, 1 Chronicles 16:30 says "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved" and Psalm 104:5 maintains "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." However, because Galileo employed the methodologies of science, his observations could be repeated by others. In time, while the Church could forcibly silence Galileo, they could not suppress his discoveries forever. Other scientists with other telescopes saw the evidence themselves.
A scientific procedure details a series of steps taken to test the hypothesis. Often, scientists must change the procedure several times to get it written down with enough detail. The procedure should probably lists materials used, process followed, and identify the variables present.
The scientist identifies: Controls which they keep constant; Independent Variables which they alter for the experiment; and the Dependent Variables that change in response to alterations of the Independent Variable.
Meg
wants to know why the corn grows in the refuse pile and how she can get
it to grow where she would like. Can you identify what might be a
Control, an Independent Variable, and a Dependant Variable?
Data
A
scientist must carefully collect the data without bias or distortion.
If a scientist isn’t careful, she can make mistakes during this step.
People have a tendency to want to make sense of the world around them
and they generally try to support what they think is a good explanation.
"Watson
called this phenomenon the confirmation bias, the tendency to seek out
and interpret new evidence in ways that confirm what you already think.
People are quite good at challenging statements made by other people,
but if it's your belief, then it's your possession -- your child,
almost-- and you want to protect it, not challenge it and risk losing
it."
~~ The Righteous Mind by Jonathan Haidt
~~ The Righteous Mind by Jonathan Haidt
Sometimes,
a scientist is guilty of having a particular bias or perspective they
wish to support. That is to say, they “have an axe to grind.” If a
scientist allows her bias to affect how she collects data, then her
results will not be reproducible by other scientists who do not share
her bias. For example, a scientist might work for a company that
produces aerosol sprays, like hairspray. As his company makes a lot of
money from selling their product, the company wants results that say
that their hairspray does not damage the ozone layer. If the scientist’s
findings do not say what they company wants, the scientist’s job may be
on the line. This bias prevents collecting accurate data and is not a
good way to conduct science.
What sort of data might Meg collect in her experiments to uncover the secrets of agriculture?
Results
You
might expect that data, results and conclusions are the same thing, but
they are distinct. A scientist collects every bit of potentially useful
data and preserves it so other scientists can review it later. The
investigating Scientist might find it useful to sort, organize, graph
the data so it is easier to figure out what the data means. A reviewing
scientist can examine the data and check the results to see if the
investigating Scientist has accurately summarized and organized his
data. This is one of the steps of peer-review and is a means of checking
for errors that the original scientist may not have seen.
No
one is perfect, but it helps an investigating scientist to be detailed
and diligent if they know their work will be scrutinized by others.
What do you think Meg’s results might look like?
Conclusion
The
conclusion would be what the investigating scientist feels they have
learned, verified, supported or disproved through their investigation.
The data could be the measurements you’ve taken; results could be their
organization and display; but your conclusion would be what they mean.
You should not be thinking about your conclusion while still collecting
data because you may develop a bias that affects how accurately you
collect your data.
"It
is a capital mistake to theorize before you have all the evidence. It
biases the judgment." ~~ Sherlock Holmes, a Study in Scarlet
"It
is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one
begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit
facts." ~~ Sherlock Holmes Quote, A Scandal in Bohemia
A
scientist should not feel badly about their experiment if their
hypothesis is proven incorrect or simply not supported by the evidence.
Sometimes scientists learn more from an incorrect hypothesis than they
do from a correct one. In any case, a scientist’s conclusion should
include a possible explanation for the hypothesis being correct or
incorrect. This may provide direction for a follow-up experiment.
What
possible confusion might arise for Meg as she examines her experiment
and tries to draw conclusions? What future experiments might occur to
her as a result?
Definitions of Science:
Science
(from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise
that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations
and predictions about the universe.
sci·ence
/ˈsīəns/ (Noun) - The intellectual and practical activity encompassing
the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and
natural...
sci·ence
[sahy-uhns] (noun) - systematic knowledge of the physical or material
world gained through observation and experimentation.
Merriam-Webster Science Definition
The
Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines science as "the state of knowing."
This can also be taken to mean knowledge as opposed to ignorance or lack
of understanding.
Another
science definition offered by Merriam-Webster is that it is knowledge,
or a system of knowledge that covers general truths or the operation of
general laws. This is especially the case when this knowledge has been
acquired through the application of the scientific method.
Oxford Dictionary Science Definition
The
Oxford Dictionary defines science as an intellectual and practical
activity that through observation and experiment, involves the
systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and
natural world.
"[Science]
consist of a body of knowledge about the natural world" The facts that
make up this knowledge are derived from accurate observations and
experiments. These facts can be checked or verified by anyone through
replicating and repeating the experiment, and as time goes on scientific
knowledge steadily progresses.
~~ Sandra Amos and Richard Boohan, authors of "Teaching Science in Secondary Schools"
Science is the process by which humans question, investigate, explore and improve the world around them.
~~ Liz Thompson
~~ Liz Thompson
Science is the identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena.
~American Heritage Dictionary
Science
is the process of finding-out. It is the art of interrogating nature, a
system of inquiry that requires curiosity, intellectual honesty,
skepticism, tolerance for ambiguity, openness to new ideas and the
sharing of knowledge.
~Roberta H. Barba
Science
is forming questions about the way things work and trying to answer
those questions through experimentation and observation. It is having an
open mind and rejoicing when the outcome is a surprise.
~Meryl Rosenblum, Elementary School Teacher
A
carpenter, a school teacher, and scientist were traveling by train
through Scotland when they saw a black sheep through the window of the
train.
"Aha," said the carpenter with a smile, "I see that Scottish sheep are black."
"Hmm," said the school teacher, "You mean that some Scottish sheep are black."
"No,"
said the scientist glumly, "All we know is that there is at least one
sheep in Scotland, and that at least one side of that one sheep is
black."
Definitions of the Scientific Method
Picture
science being a car driving towards a place called "knowledge." The
scientific method is like the road map that you follow in order to get
to that destination.
Let's
say that I am an archaeologist and that I hypothesize that an ancient
culture "X" existed based upon a piece of pottery that I had found and I
further hypothesize various characteristics of this culture. Later it
is found that I was correct in my hypothesis through continued
validation from other findings. I then hypothesize that any culture that
can make such pottery will have a high lead content in their remains.
Again this is found to be true. These hypotheses have now become
theories as they have been verified yet they did not follow the
definition of scientific method nor could they. This is Science.
(An acceptable “Scientific Method” needs to account for the field of study.)
The
phrase “THE scientific method” may be a bit misleading. Biologists
study variation in the traits of organisms, and the very methods that
scientists use to ask and answer questions might be viewed as a variable
trait. Some scientists do things one way, some another; some emphasize
experimental tests, some observations, some complex mathematical models.
But there are fundamental steps in the scientific process that almost
all scientists use, and those steps are what we highlight as “the
methodS of science.”
The steps of the scientific method are to:
- Ask a Question
- Do Background Research
- Construct a Hypothesis
- Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment
- Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
- Communicate Your Results
The
scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena,
acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous
knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on
empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of
reasoning.
A
method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the
17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and
experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of
hypotheses.
Oxford English Dictionary
The scientific method has four steps
1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.
2.
Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics, the
hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical
relation.
3.
Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or
to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.
4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.
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